diff --git a/lib/kamal/cli/accessory.rb b/lib/kamal/cli/accessory.rb
index b3ff10f5..2bf9a786 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/cli/accessory.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/cli/accessory.rb
@@ -12,6 +12,8 @@ class Kamal::Cli::Accessory < Kamal::Cli::Base
           on(hosts) do
             execute *KAMAL.registry.login if login
             execute *KAMAL.auditor.record("Booted #{name} accessory"), verbosity: :debug
+            execute *accessory.ensure_env_directory
+            upload! accessory.secrets_io, accessory.secrets_path, mode: "0600"
             execute *accessory.run
           end
         end
diff --git a/lib/kamal/cli/app/boot.rb b/lib/kamal/cli/app/boot.rb
index d5b76d4e..df3e6925 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/cli/app/boot.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/cli/app/boot.rb
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 class Kamal::Cli::App::Boot
   attr_reader :host, :role, :version, :barrier, :sshkit
-  delegate :execute, :capture_with_info, :capture_with_pretty_json, :info, :error, to: :sshkit
+  delegate :execute, :capture_with_info, :capture_with_pretty_json, :info, :error, :upload!, to: :sshkit
   delegate :uses_cord?, :assets?, :running_traefik?, to: :role
 
   def initialize(host, role, sshkit, version, barrier)
@@ -48,7 +48,11 @@ class Kamal::Cli::App::Boot
 
       execute *app.tie_cord(role.cord_host_file) if uses_cord?
       hostname = "#{host.to_s[0...51].gsub(/\.+$/, '')}-#{SecureRandom.hex(6)}"
+
+      execute *app.ensure_env_directory
+      upload! role.secrets_io(host), role.secrets_path, mode: "0600"
       execute *app.run(hostname: hostname)
+
       Kamal::Cli::Healthcheck::Poller.wait_for_healthy(pause_after_ready: true) { capture_with_info(*app.status(version: version)) }
     end
 
diff --git a/lib/kamal/cli/lock.rb b/lib/kamal/cli/lock.rb
index 7598b662..306c8a07 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/cli/lock.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/cli/lock.rb
@@ -3,7 +3,6 @@ class Kamal::Cli::Lock < Kamal::Cli::Base
   def status
     handle_missing_lock do
       on(KAMAL.primary_host) do
-        execute *KAMAL.server.ensure_run_directory
         puts capture_with_debug(*KAMAL.lock.status)
       end
     end
@@ -17,7 +16,6 @@ class Kamal::Cli::Lock < Kamal::Cli::Base
 
     raise_if_locked do
       on(KAMAL.primary_host) do
-        execute *KAMAL.server.ensure_run_directory
         execute *KAMAL.lock.acquire(message, KAMAL.config.version), verbosity: :debug
       end
       say "Acquired the deploy lock"
@@ -28,7 +26,6 @@ class Kamal::Cli::Lock < Kamal::Cli::Base
   def release
     handle_missing_lock do
       on(KAMAL.primary_host) do
-        execute *KAMAL.server.ensure_run_directory
         execute *KAMAL.lock.release, verbosity: :debug
       end
       say "Released the deploy lock"
diff --git a/lib/kamal/cli/traefik.rb b/lib/kamal/cli/traefik.rb
index a8bd2126..41ffbc04 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/cli/traefik.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/cli/traefik.rb
@@ -4,6 +4,8 @@ class Kamal::Cli::Traefik < Kamal::Cli::Base
     with_lock do
       on(KAMAL.traefik_hosts) do
         execute *KAMAL.registry.login
+        execute *KAMAL.traefik.ensure_env_directory
+        upload! KAMAL.traefik.secrets_io, KAMAL.traefik.secrets_path, mode: "0600"
         execute *KAMAL.traefik.start_or_run
       end
     end
diff --git a/lib/kamal/commands/accessory.rb b/lib/kamal/commands/accessory.rb
index d34377c7..f3b676d1 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/commands/accessory.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/commands/accessory.rb
@@ -1,7 +1,9 @@
 class Kamal::Commands::Accessory < Kamal::Commands::Base
   attr_reader :accessory_config
   delegate :service_name, :image, :hosts, :port, :files, :directories, :cmd,
-           :publish_args, :env_args, :volume_args, :label_args, :option_args, to: :accessory_config
+           :publish_args, :env_args, :volume_args, :label_args, :option_args,
+           :secrets_io, :secrets_path, :env_directory,
+           to: :accessory_config
 
   def initialize(config, name:)
     super(config)
@@ -98,6 +100,10 @@ class Kamal::Commands::Accessory < Kamal::Commands::Base
     docker :image, :rm, "--force", image
   end
 
+  def ensure_env_directory
+    make_directory env_directory
+  end
+
   private
     def service_filter
       [ "--filter", "label=service=#{service_name}" ]
diff --git a/lib/kamal/commands/app.rb b/lib/kamal/commands/app.rb
index 4fe8ead7..f1991e48 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/commands/app.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/commands/app.rb
@@ -69,6 +69,10 @@ class Kamal::Commands::App < Kamal::Commands::Base
       extract_version_from_name
   end
 
+  def ensure_env_directory
+    make_directory role.env_directory
+  end
+
   private
     def container_name(version = nil)
       [ role.container_prefix, version || config.version ].compact.join("-")
diff --git a/lib/kamal/commands/base.rb b/lib/kamal/commands/base.rb
index 39e60d50..7521780a 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/commands/base.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/commands/base.rb
@@ -37,6 +37,10 @@ module Kamal::Commands
       [ :rm, "-r", path ]
     end
 
+    def remove_file(path)
+      [ :rm, path ]
+    end
+
     private
       def combine(*commands, by: "&&")
         commands
diff --git a/lib/kamal/commands/traefik.rb b/lib/kamal/commands/traefik.rb
index dd08ef50..964ef3eb 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/commands/traefik.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/commands/traefik.rb
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 class Kamal::Commands::Traefik < Kamal::Commands::Base
   delegate :argumentize, :optionize, to: Kamal::Utils
-  delegate :port, :publish?, :labels, :env, :image, :options, :args, to: :"config.traefik"
+  delegate :port, :publish?, :labels, :env, :image, :options, :args, :env_args, :secrets_io, :env_directory, :secrets_path, to: :"config.traefik"
 
   def run
     docker :run, "--name traefik",
@@ -54,6 +54,10 @@ class Kamal::Commands::Traefik < Kamal::Commands::Base
     docker :image, :prune, "--all", "--force", "--filter", "label=org.opencontainers.image.title=Traefik"
   end
 
+  def ensure_env_directory
+    make_directory env_directory
+  end
+
   private
     def publish_args
       argumentize "--publish", port if publish?
@@ -63,10 +67,6 @@ class Kamal::Commands::Traefik < Kamal::Commands::Base
       argumentize "--label", labels
     end
 
-    def env_args
-      env.args
-    end
-
     def docker_options_args
       optionize(options)
     end
diff --git a/lib/kamal/configuration.rb b/lib/kamal/configuration.rb
index 4ed1d56f..0194bdd2 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/configuration.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/configuration.rb
@@ -217,7 +217,7 @@ class Kamal::Configuration
   end
 
 
-  def host_env_directory
+  def env_directory
     File.join(run_directory, "env")
   end
 
diff --git a/lib/kamal/configuration/accessory.rb b/lib/kamal/configuration/accessory.rb
index 5d69af7a..57489f17 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/configuration/accessory.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/configuration/accessory.rb
@@ -51,7 +51,19 @@ class Kamal::Configuration::Accessory
   end
 
   def env_args
-    env.args
+    [ *env.clear_args, *argumentize("--env-file", secrets_path) ]
+  end
+
+  def env_directory
+    File.join(config.env_directory, "accessories")
+  end
+
+  def secrets_io
+    env.secrets_io
+  end
+
+  def secrets_path
+    File.join(config.env_directory, "accessories", "#{service_name}.env")
   end
 
   def files
diff --git a/lib/kamal/configuration/env.rb b/lib/kamal/configuration/env.rb
index d8f27ece..8e52d9e4 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/configuration/env.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/configuration/env.rb
@@ -13,8 +13,12 @@ class Kamal::Configuration::Env
     validate! config, context: context, with: Kamal::Configuration::Validator::Env
   end
 
-  def args
-    [ *clear_args, *secret_args ]
+  def clear_args
+    argumentize("--env", clear)
+  end
+
+  def secrets_io
+    Kamal::EnvFile.new(secret_keys.to_h { |key| [ key, secrets[key] ] }).to_io
   end
 
   def merge(other)
@@ -22,13 +26,4 @@ class Kamal::Configuration::Env
       config: { "clear" => clear.merge(other.clear), "secret" => secret_keys | other.secret_keys },
       secrets: secrets
   end
-
-  private
-    def clear_args
-      argumentize("--env", clear)
-    end
-
-    def secret_args
-      argumentize("--env", secret_keys.to_h { |key| [ key, secrets[key] ] }, sensitive: true)
-    end
 end
diff --git a/lib/kamal/configuration/role.rb b/lib/kamal/configuration/role.rb
index 60bee1a6..ef651898 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/configuration/role.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/configuration/role.rb
@@ -77,7 +77,19 @@ class Kamal::Configuration::Role
   end
 
   def env_args(host)
-    env(host).args
+    [ *env(host).clear_args, *argumentize("--env-file", secrets_path) ]
+  end
+
+  def env_directory
+    File.join(config.env_directory, "roles")
+  end
+
+  def secrets_io(host)
+    env(host).secrets_io
+  end
+
+  def secrets_path
+    File.join(config.env_directory, "roles", "#{container_prefix}.env")
   end
 
   def asset_volume_args
diff --git a/lib/kamal/configuration/traefik.rb b/lib/kamal/configuration/traefik.rb
index e046a1e3..45d8bac5 100644
--- a/lib/kamal/configuration/traefik.rb
+++ b/lib/kamal/configuration/traefik.rb
@@ -1,4 +1,6 @@
 class Kamal::Configuration::Traefik
+  delegate :argumentize, to: Kamal::Utils
+
   DEFAULT_IMAGE = "traefik:v2.10"
   CONTAINER_PORT = 80
   DEFAULT_ARGS = {
@@ -57,4 +59,20 @@ class Kamal::Configuration::Traefik
   def image
     traefik_config.fetch("image", DEFAULT_IMAGE)
   end
+
+  def env_args
+    [ *env.clear_args, *argumentize("--env-file", secrets_path) ]
+  end
+
+  def env_directory
+    File.join(config.env_directory, "traefik")
+  end
+
+  def secrets_io
+    env.secrets_io
+  end
+
+  def secrets_path
+    File.join(config.env_directory, "traefik", "traefik.env")
+  end
 end
diff --git a/lib/kamal/env_file.rb b/lib/kamal/env_file.rb
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..6a4a80e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lib/kamal/env_file.rb
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+# Encode an env hash as a string where secret values have been looked up and all values escaped for Docker.
+class Kamal::EnvFile
+  def initialize(env)
+    @env = env
+  end
+
+  def to_s
+    env_file = StringIO.new.tap do |contents|
+      @env.each do |key, value|
+        contents << docker_env_file_line(key, value)
+      end
+    end.string
+
+    # Ensure the file has some contents to avoid the SSHKIT empty file warning
+    env_file.presence || "\n"
+  end
+
+  def to_io
+    StringIO.new(to_s)
+  end
+
+  alias to_str to_s
+
+  private
+    def docker_env_file_line(key, value)
+      "#{key}=#{escape_docker_env_file_value(value)}\n"
+    end
+
+    # Escape a value to make it safe to dump in a docker file.
+    def escape_docker_env_file_value(value)
+      # keep non-ascii(UTF-8) characters as it is
+      value.to_s.scan(/[\x00-\x7F]+|[^\x00-\x7F]+/).map do |part|
+        part.ascii_only? ? escape_docker_env_file_ascii_value(part) : part
+      end.join
+    end
+
+    def escape_docker_env_file_ascii_value(value)
+      # Doublequotes are treated literally in docker env files
+      # so remove leading and trailing ones and unescape any others
+      value.to_s.dump[1..-2].gsub(/\\"/, "\"")
+    end
+end
diff --git a/test/cli/accessory_test.rb b/test/cli/accessory_test.rb
index 9a130551..0e3abc46 100644
--- a/test/cli/accessory_test.rb
+++ b/test/cli/accessory_test.rb
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ class CliAccessoryTest < CliTestCase
 
     run_command("boot", "mysql").tap do |output|
       assert_match /docker login.*on 1.1.1.3/, output
-      assert_match "docker run --name app-mysql --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 3306:3306 --env MYSQL_ROOT_HOST=\"%\" --env [REDACTED] --volume $PWD/app-mysql/etc/mysql/my.cnf:/etc/mysql/my.cnf --volume $PWD/app-mysql/data:/var/lib/mysql --label service=\"app-mysql\" mysql:5.7 on 1.1.1.3", output
+      assert_match "docker run --name app-mysql --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 3306:3306 --env MYSQL_ROOT_HOST=\"%\" --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/app-mysql.env --volume $PWD/app-mysql/etc/mysql/my.cnf:/etc/mysql/my.cnf --volume $PWD/app-mysql/data:/var/lib/mysql --label service=\"app-mysql\" mysql:5.7 on 1.1.1.3", output
     end
   end
 
@@ -29,9 +29,9 @@ class CliAccessoryTest < CliTestCase
       assert_match /docker login.*on 1.1.1.3/, output
       assert_match /docker login.*on 1.1.1.1/, output
       assert_match /docker login.*on 1.1.1.2/, output
-      assert_match "docker run --name app-mysql --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 3306:3306 --env MYSQL_ROOT_HOST=\"%\" --env [REDACTED] --volume $PWD/app-mysql/etc/mysql/my.cnf:/etc/mysql/my.cnf --volume $PWD/app-mysql/data:/var/lib/mysql --label service=\"app-mysql\" mysql:5.7 on 1.1.1.3", output
-      assert_match "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --volume $PWD/app-redis/data:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" redis:latest on 1.1.1.1", output
-      assert_match "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --volume $PWD/app-redis/data:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" redis:latest on 1.1.1.2", output
+      assert_match "docker run --name app-mysql --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 3306:3306 --env MYSQL_ROOT_HOST=\"%\" --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/app-mysql.env --volume $PWD/app-mysql/etc/mysql/my.cnf:/etc/mysql/my.cnf --volume $PWD/app-mysql/data:/var/lib/mysql --label service=\"app-mysql\" mysql:5.7 on 1.1.1.3", output
+      assert_match "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/app-redis.env --volume $PWD/app-redis/data:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" redis:latest on 1.1.1.1", output
+      assert_match "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/app-redis.env --volume $PWD/app-redis/data:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" redis:latest on 1.1.1.2", output
     end
   end
 
@@ -200,8 +200,8 @@ class CliAccessoryTest < CliTestCase
     run_command("boot", "redis", "--hosts", "1.1.1.1").tap do |output|
       assert_match /docker login.*on 1.1.1.1/, output
       assert_no_match /docker login.*on 1.1.1.2/, output
-      assert_match "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --volume $PWD/app-redis/data:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" redis:latest on 1.1.1.1", output
-      assert_no_match "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --volume $PWD/app-redis/data:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" redis:latest on 1.1.1.2", output
+      assert_match "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/app-redis.env --volume $PWD/app-redis/data:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" redis:latest on 1.1.1.1", output
+      assert_no_match "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/app-redis.env --volume $PWD/app-redis/data:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" redis:latest on 1.1.1.2", output
     end
   end
 
@@ -212,8 +212,8 @@ class CliAccessoryTest < CliTestCase
     run_command("boot", "redis", "--hosts", "1.1.1.1,1.1.1.3").tap do |output|
       assert_match /docker login.*on 1.1.1.1/, output
       assert_no_match /docker login.*on 1.1.1.3/, output
-      assert_match "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --volume $PWD/app-redis/data:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" redis:latest on 1.1.1.1", output
-      assert_no_match "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --volume $PWD/app-redis/data:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" redis:latest on 1.1.1.3", output
+      assert_match "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/app-redis.env --volume $PWD/app-redis/data:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" redis:latest on 1.1.1.1", output
+      assert_no_match "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/app-redis.env --volume $PWD/app-redis/data:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" redis:latest on 1.1.1.3", output
     end
   end
 
diff --git a/test/cli/app_test.rb b/test/cli/app_test.rb
index 0a9ec485..46a067f3 100644
--- a/test/cli/app_test.rb
+++ b/test/cli/app_test.rb
@@ -243,13 +243,13 @@ class CliAppTest < CliTestCase
 
   test "exec" do
     run_command("exec", "ruby -v").tap do |output|
-      assert_match "docker run --rm dhh/app:latest ruby -v", output
+      assert_match "docker run --rm --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env dhh/app:latest ruby -v", output
     end
   end
 
   test "exec separate arguments" do
     run_command("exec", "ruby", " -v").tap do |output|
-      assert_match "docker run --rm dhh/app:latest ruby -v", output
+      assert_match "docker run --rm --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env dhh/app:latest ruby -v", output
     end
   end
 
@@ -262,7 +262,7 @@ class CliAppTest < CliTestCase
 
   test "exec interactive" do
     SSHKit::Backend::Abstract.any_instance.expects(:exec)
-      .with("ssh -t root@1.1.1.1 -p 22 'docker run -it --rm dhh/app:latest ruby -v'")
+      .with("ssh -t root@1.1.1.1 -p 22 'docker run -it --rm --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env dhh/app:latest ruby -v'")
     run_command("exec", "-i", "ruby -v").tap do |output|
       assert_match "Get most recent version available as an image...", output
       assert_match "Launching interactive command with version latest via SSH from new container on 1.1.1.1...", output
diff --git a/test/cli/traefik_test.rb b/test/cli/traefik_test.rb
index 41921f96..29171150 100644
--- a/test/cli/traefik_test.rb
+++ b/test/cli/traefik_test.rb
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ class CliTraefikTest < CliTestCase
   test "boot" do
     run_command("boot").tap do |output|
       assert_match "docker login", output
-      assert_match "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{Kamal::Configuration::Traefik::DEFAULT_IMAGE} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\"", output
+      assert_match "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{Kamal::Configuration::Traefik::DEFAULT_IMAGE} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\"", output
     end
   end
 
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ class CliTraefikTest < CliTestCase
     run_command("reboot", "-y").tap do |output|
       assert_match "docker container stop traefik", output
       assert_match "docker container prune --force --filter label=org.opencontainers.image.title=Traefik", output
-      assert_match "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{Kamal::Configuration::Traefik::DEFAULT_IMAGE} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\"", output
+      assert_match "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{Kamal::Configuration::Traefik::DEFAULT_IMAGE} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\"", output
     end
   end
 
diff --git a/test/commands/accessory_test.rb b/test/commands/accessory_test.rb
index d63fcd76..23d304da 100644
--- a/test/commands/accessory_test.rb
+++ b/test/commands/accessory_test.rb
@@ -51,15 +51,15 @@ class CommandsAccessoryTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
 
   test "run" do
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name app-mysql --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 3306:3306 --env MYSQL_ROOT_HOST=\"%\" --env MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD=\"secret123\" --label service=\"app-mysql\" private.registry/mysql:8.0",
+      "docker run --name app-mysql --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 3306:3306 --env MYSQL_ROOT_HOST=\"%\" --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/app-mysql.env --label service=\"app-mysql\" private.registry/mysql:8.0",
       new_command(:mysql).run.join(" ")
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --env SOMETHING=\"else\" --volume /var/lib/redis:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" --label cache=\"true\" redis:latest",
+      "docker run --name app-redis --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --publish 6379:6379 --env SOMETHING=\"else\" --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/app-redis.env --volume /var/lib/redis:/data --label service=\"app-redis\" --label cache=\"true\" redis:latest",
       new_command(:redis).run.join(" ")
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name custom-busybox --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"custom-busybox\" busybox:latest",
+      "docker run --name custom-busybox --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/custom-busybox.env --label service=\"custom-busybox\" busybox:latest",
       new_command(:busybox).run.join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ class CommandsAccessoryTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config[:logging] = { "driver" => "local", "options" => { "max-size" => "100m", "max-file" => "3" } }
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name custom-busybox --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-driver \"local\" --log-opt max-size=\"100m\" --log-opt max-file=\"3\" --label service=\"custom-busybox\" busybox:latest",
+      "docker run --name custom-busybox --detach --restart unless-stopped --log-driver \"local\" --log-opt max-size=\"100m\" --log-opt max-file=\"3\" --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/custom-busybox.env --label service=\"custom-busybox\" busybox:latest",
       new_command(:busybox).run.join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -92,7 +92,7 @@ class CommandsAccessoryTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
 
   test "execute in new container" do
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --rm --env MYSQL_ROOT_HOST=\"%\" --env MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD=\"secret123\" private.registry/mysql:8.0 mysql -u root",
+      "docker run --rm --env MYSQL_ROOT_HOST=\"%\" --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/app-mysql.env private.registry/mysql:8.0 mysql -u root",
       new_command(:mysql).execute_in_new_container("mysql", "-u", "root").join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ class CommandsAccessoryTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
 
   test "execute in new container over ssh" do
     new_command(:mysql).stub(:run_over_ssh, ->(cmd) { cmd.join(" ") }) do
-      assert_match %r{docker run -it --rm --env MYSQL_ROOT_HOST=\"%\" --env MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD=\"secret123\" private.registry/mysql:8.0 mysql -u root},
+      assert_match %r{docker run -it --rm --env MYSQL_ROOT_HOST=\"%\" --env-file .kamal/env/accessories/app-mysql.env private.registry/mysql:8.0 mysql -u root},
         new_command(:mysql).execute_in_new_container_over_ssh("mysql", "-u", "root")
     end
   end
diff --git a/test/commands/app_test.rb b/test/commands/app_test.rb
index 2ccb6033..69ed6d9b 100644
--- a/test/commands/app_test.rb
+++ b/test/commands/app_test.rb
@@ -14,13 +14,13 @@ class CommandsAppTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
 
   test "run" do
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/up || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
+      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/up || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
   test "run with hostname" do
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 --hostname myhost -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/up || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
+      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 --hostname myhost -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/up || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
       new_command.run(hostname: "myhost").join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ class CommandsAppTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config[:volumes] = [ "/local/path:/container/path" ]
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/up || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --volume /local/path:/container/path --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
+      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/up || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --volume /local/path:/container/path --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ class CommandsAppTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config[:healthcheck] = { "path" => "/healthz" }
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/healthz || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
+      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/healthz || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ class CommandsAppTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config[:healthcheck] = { "cmd" => "/bin/up" }
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --health-cmd \"(/bin/up) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
+      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env --health-cmd \"(/bin/up) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -52,14 +52,14 @@ class CommandsAppTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config[:servers] = { "web" => { "hosts" => [ "1.1.1.1" ], "healthcheck" => { "cmd" => "/bin/healthy" } } }
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --health-cmd \"(/bin/healthy) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
+      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env --health-cmd \"(/bin/healthy) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
   test "run with custom options" do
     @config[:servers] = { "web" => [ "1.1.1.1" ], "jobs" => { "hosts" => [ "1.1.1.2" ], "cmd" => "bin/jobs", "options" => { "mount" => "somewhere", "cap-add" => true } } }
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-jobs-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-jobs-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"jobs\" --label destination --mount \"somewhere\" --cap-add dhh/app:999 bin/jobs",
+      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-jobs-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-jobs-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-jobs.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"jobs\" --label destination --mount \"somewhere\" --cap-add dhh/app:999 bin/jobs",
       new_command(role: "jobs", host: "1.1.1.2").run.join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ class CommandsAppTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config[:logging] = { "driver" => "local", "options" => { "max-size" => "100m", "max-file" => "3" } }
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/up || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-driver \"local\" --log-opt max-size=\"100m\" --log-opt max-file=\"3\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
+      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/up || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-driver \"local\" --log-opt max-size=\"100m\" --log-opt max-file=\"3\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ class CommandsAppTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config[:servers] = { "web" => { "hosts" => [ "1.1.1.1" ], "logging" => { "driver" => "local", "options" => { "max-size" => "100m" } } } }
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/up || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-driver \"local\" --log-opt max-size=\"100m\" --log-opt max-file=\"3\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
+      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/up || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-driver \"local\" --log-opt max-size=\"100m\" --log-opt max-file=\"3\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ class CommandsAppTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config[:env]["tags"] = { "tag1" => { "ENV1" => "value1" } }
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env ENV1=\"value1\" --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/up || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
+      "docker run --detach --restart unless-stopped --name app-web-999 -e KAMAL_CONTAINER_NAME=\"app-web-999\" -e KAMAL_VERSION=\"999\" --env ENV1=\"value1\" --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env --health-cmd \"(curl -f http://localhost:3000/up || exit 1) && (stat /tmp/kamal-cord/cord > /dev/null || exit 1)\" --health-interval \"1s\" --volume $(pwd)/.kamal/cords/app-web-12345678901234567890123456789012:/tmp/kamal-cord --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label service=\"app\" --label role=\"web\" --label destination --label traefik.http.services.app-web.loadbalancer.server.scheme=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.priority=\"2\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.attempts=\"5\" --label traefik.http.middlewares.app-web-retry.retry.initialinterval=\"500ms\" --label traefik.http.routers.app-web.middlewares=\"app-web-retry@docker\" dhh/app:999",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -204,13 +204,13 @@ class CommandsAppTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
 
   test "execute in new container" do
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --rm --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" dhh/app:999 bin/rails db:setup",
+      "docker run --rm --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env dhh/app:999 bin/rails db:setup",
       new_command.execute_in_new_container("bin/rails", "db:setup", env: {}).join(" ")
   end
 
   test "execute in new container with env" do
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --rm --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --env foo=\"bar\" dhh/app:999 bin/rails db:setup",
+      "docker run --rm --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env --env foo=\"bar\" dhh/app:999 bin/rails db:setup",
       new_command.execute_in_new_container("bin/rails", "db:setup", env: { "foo" => "bar" }).join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -219,14 +219,14 @@ class CommandsAppTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config[:env]["tags"] = { "tag1" => { "ENV1" => "value1" } }
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --rm --env ENV1=\"value1\" --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" dhh/app:999 bin/rails db:setup",
+      "docker run --rm --env ENV1=\"value1\" --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env dhh/app:999 bin/rails db:setup",
       new_command.execute_in_new_container("bin/rails", "db:setup", env: {}).join(" ")
   end
 
   test "execute in new container with custom options" do
     @config[:servers] = { "web" => { "hosts" => [ "1.1.1.1" ], "options" => { "mount" => "somewhere", "cap-add" => true } } }
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --rm --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --mount \"somewhere\" --cap-add dhh/app:999 bin/rails db:setup",
+      "docker run --rm --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env --mount \"somewhere\" --cap-add dhh/app:999 bin/rails db:setup",
       new_command.execute_in_new_container("bin/rails", "db:setup", env: {}).join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -243,7 +243,7 @@ class CommandsAppTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
   end
 
   test "execute in new container over ssh" do
-    assert_match %r{docker run -it --rm --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" dhh/app:999 bin/rails c},
+    assert_match %r{docker run -it --rm --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env dhh/app:999 bin/rails c},
       new_command.execute_in_new_container_over_ssh("bin/rails", "c", env: {})
   end
 
@@ -251,13 +251,13 @@ class CommandsAppTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config[:servers] = [ { "1.1.1.1" => "tag1" } ]
     @config[:env]["tags"] = { "tag1" => { "ENV1" => "value1" } }
 
-    assert_equal "ssh -t root@1.1.1.1 -p 22 'docker run -it --rm --env ENV1=\"value1\" --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" dhh/app:999 bin/rails c'",
+    assert_equal "ssh -t root@1.1.1.1 -p 22 'docker run -it --rm --env ENV1=\"value1\" --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env dhh/app:999 bin/rails c'",
       new_command.execute_in_new_container_over_ssh("bin/rails", "c", env: {})
   end
 
   test "execute in new container with custom options over ssh" do
     @config[:servers] = { "web" => { "hosts" => [ "1.1.1.1" ], "options" => { "mount" => "somewhere", "cap-add" => true } } }
-    assert_match %r{docker run -it --rm --env RAILS_MASTER_KEY=\"456\" --mount \"somewhere\" --cap-add dhh/app:999 bin/rails c},
+    assert_match %r{docker run -it --rm --env-file .kamal/env/roles/app-web.env --mount \"somewhere\" --cap-add dhh/app:999 bin/rails c},
       new_command.execute_in_new_container_over_ssh("bin/rails", "c", env: {})
   end
 
diff --git a/test/commands/traefik_test.rb b/test/commands/traefik_test.rb
index 3e90cd50..b13e3700 100644
--- a/test/commands/traefik_test.rb
+++ b/test/commands/traefik_test.rb
@@ -18,72 +18,72 @@ class CommandsTraefikTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
 
   test "run" do
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
 
     @config[:traefik]["host_port"] = "8080"
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 8080:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 8080:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
 
     @config[:traefik]["publish"] = false
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
   test "run with ports configured" do
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
 
     @config[:traefik]["options"] = { "publish" => %w[9000:9000 9001:9001] }
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" --publish \"9000:9000\" --publish \"9001:9001\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" --publish \"9000:9000\" --publish \"9001:9001\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
   test "run with volumes configured" do
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
 
     @config[:traefik]["options"] = { "volume" => %w[./letsencrypt/acme.json:/letsencrypt/acme.json] }
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" --volume \"./letsencrypt/acme.json:/letsencrypt/acme.json\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" --volume \"./letsencrypt/acme.json:/letsencrypt/acme.json\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
   test "run with several options configured" do
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
 
     @config[:traefik]["options"] = { "volume" => %w[./letsencrypt/acme.json:/letsencrypt/acme.json], "publish" => %w[8080:8080], "memory" => "512m" }
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" --volume \"./letsencrypt/acme.json:/letsencrypt/acme.json\" --publish \"8080:8080\" --memory \"512m\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" --volume \"./letsencrypt/acme.json:/letsencrypt/acme.json\" --publish \"8080:8080\" --memory \"512m\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
   test "run with labels configured" do
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
 
     @config[:traefik]["labels"] = { "traefik.http.routers.dashboard.service" => "api@internal", "traefik.http.routers.dashboard.middlewares" => "auth" }
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" --label traefik.http.routers.dashboard.service=\"api@internal\" --label traefik.http.routers.dashboard.middlewares=\"auth\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" --label traefik.http.routers.dashboard.service=\"api@internal\" --label traefik.http.routers.dashboard.middlewares=\"auth\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
   test "run with env configured" do
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
 
-    @config[:traefik]["env"] = { "secret" => %w[EXAMPLE_API_KEY] }
+    @config[:traefik]["env"] = { "EXAMPLE_API_KEY" => "456" }
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env EXAMPLE_API_KEY=\"456\" --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env EXAMPLE_API_KEY=\"456\" --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ class CommandsTraefikTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config.delete(:traefik)
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{Kamal::Configuration::Traefik::DEFAULT_IMAGE} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{Kamal::Configuration::Traefik::DEFAULT_IMAGE} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ class CommandsTraefikTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config[:logging] = { "driver" => "local", "options" => { "max-size" => "100m", "max-file" => "3" } }
 
     assert_equal \
-      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-driver \"local\" --log-opt max-size=\"100m\" --log-opt max-file=\"3\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+      "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-driver \"local\" --log-opt max-size=\"100m\" --log-opt max-file=\"3\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
@@ -107,13 +107,13 @@ class CommandsTraefikTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     @config[:traefik]["args"]["log.level"] = "ERROR"
 
     assert_equal \
-    "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"ERROR\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
+    "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" #{@image} --providers.docker --log.level=\"ERROR\" --accesslog.format=\"json\" --api.insecure --metrics.prometheus.buckets=\"0.1,0.3,1.2,5.0\"",
       new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
   test "run with args array" do
     @config[:traefik]["args"] = { "entrypoints.web.forwardedheaders.trustedips" => %w[ 127.0.0.1 127.0.0.2 ] }
-    assert_equal "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" traefik:test --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --entrypoints.web.forwardedheaders.trustedips=\"127.0.0.1\" --entrypoints.web.forwardedheaders.trustedips=\"127.0.0.2\"", new_command.run.join(" ")
+    assert_equal "docker run --name traefik --detach --restart unless-stopped --publish 80:80 --volume /var/run/docker.sock:/var/run/docker.sock --env-file .kamal/env/traefik/traefik.env --log-opt max-size=\"10m\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.entryPoints=\"http\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.rule=\"PathPrefix(\\`/\\`)\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.service=\"unavailable\" --label traefik.http.routers.catchall.priority=\"1\" --label traefik.http.services.unavailable.loadbalancer.server.port=\"0\" traefik:test --providers.docker --log.level=\"DEBUG\" --entrypoints.web.forwardedheaders.trustedips=\"127.0.0.1\" --entrypoints.web.forwardedheaders.trustedips=\"127.0.0.2\"", new_command.run.join(" ")
   end
 
   test "traefik start" do
diff --git a/test/configuration/accessory_test.rb b/test/configuration/accessory_test.rb
index 3497e6c1..acfe991f 100644
--- a/test/configuration/accessory_test.rb
+++ b/test/configuration/accessory_test.rb
@@ -119,8 +119,10 @@ class ConfigurationAccessoryTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
     with_test_secrets("secrets" => "MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD=secret123") do
       config = Kamal::Configuration.new(@deploy)
 
-      assert_equal [ "--env", "MYSQL_ROOT_HOST=\"%\"", "--env", "MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD=\"secret123\"" ], config.accessory(:mysql).env_args.map(&:to_s)
-      assert_equal [ "--env", "SOMETHING=\"else\"" ], @config.accessory(:redis).env_args
+      assert_equal [ "--env", "MYSQL_ROOT_HOST=\"%\"", "--env-file", ".kamal/env/accessories/app-mysql.env" ], config.accessory(:mysql).env_args.map(&:to_s)
+      assert_equal "MYSQL_ROOT_PASSWORD=secret123\n", config.accessory(:mysql).secrets_io.string
+      assert_equal [ "--env", "SOMETHING=\"else\"", "--env-file", ".kamal/env/accessories/app-redis.env" ], @config.accessory(:redis).env_args
+      assert_equal "\n", config.accessory(:redis).secrets_io.string
     end
   end
 
diff --git a/test/configuration/env_test.rb b/test/configuration/env_test.rb
index b4e924a7..627d3a6c 100644
--- a/test/configuration/env_test.rb
+++ b/test/configuration/env_test.rb
@@ -6,20 +6,20 @@ class ConfigurationEnvTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
   test "simple" do
     assert_config \
       config: { "foo" => "bar", "baz" => "haz" },
-      results: { "foo" => "bar", "baz" => "haz" }
+      clear: { "foo" => "bar", "baz" => "haz" }
   end
 
   test "clear" do
     assert_config \
       config: { "clear" => { "foo" => "bar", "baz" => "haz" } },
-      results: { "foo" => "bar", "baz" => "haz" }
+      clear: { "foo" => "bar", "baz" => "haz" }
   end
 
   test "secret" do
     with_test_secrets("secrets" => "PASSWORD=hello") do
       assert_config \
         config: { "secret" => [ "PASSWORD" ] },
-        results: { "PASSWORD" => "hello" }
+        secrets: { "PASSWORD" => "hello" }
     end
   end
 
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ class ConfigurationEnvTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
       "secret" => [ "PASSWORD" ]
     }
 
-    assert_raises(Kamal::ConfigurationError) { Kamal::Configuration::Env.new(config: { "secret" => [ "PASSWORD" ] }, secrets: Kamal::Secrets.new).args }
+    assert_raises(Kamal::ConfigurationError) { Kamal::Configuration::Env.new(config: { "secret" => [ "PASSWORD" ] }, secrets: Kamal::Secrets.new).secrets_io }
   end
 
   test "secret and clear" do
@@ -43,14 +43,17 @@ class ConfigurationEnvTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
 
       assert_config \
         config: config,
-        results: { "foo" => "bar", "baz" => "haz", "PASSWORD" => "hello" }
+        clear: { "foo" => "bar", "baz" => "haz" },
+        secrets: { "PASSWORD" => "hello" }
     end
   end
 
   private
-    def assert_config(config:, results:)
+    def assert_config(config:, clear: {}, secrets: {})
       env = Kamal::Configuration::Env.new config: config, secrets: Kamal::Secrets.new
-      expected_args = results.to_a.flat_map { |key, value| [ "--env", "#{key}=\"#{value}\"" ] }
-      assert_equal expected_args, env.args.map(&:to_s) #  to_s removes the redactions
+      expected_clear_args = clear.to_a.flat_map { |key, value| [ "--env", "#{key}=\"#{value}\"" ] }
+      assert_equal expected_clear_args, env.clear_args.map(&:to_s) #  to_s removes the redactions
+      expected_secrets = secrets.to_a.flat_map { |key, value| "#{key}=#{value}" }.join("\n") + "\n"
+      assert_equal expected_secrets, env.secrets_io.string
     end
 end
diff --git a/test/configuration/role_test.rb b/test/configuration/role_test.rb
index d3b54ca6..c0b643bf 100644
--- a/test/configuration/role_test.rb
+++ b/test/configuration/role_test.rb
@@ -69,10 +69,13 @@ class ConfigurationRoleTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
   test "env overwritten by role" do
     assert_equal "redis://a/b", config_with_roles.role(:workers).env("1.1.1.3").clear["REDIS_URL"]
 
-    assert_equal [
-      "--env", "REDIS_URL=\"redis://a/b\"",
-      "--env", "WEB_CONCURRENCY=\"4\"" ],
-      config_with_roles.role(:workers).env_args("1.1.1.3")
+    assert_equal \
+      [ "--env", "REDIS_URL=\"redis://a/b\"", "--env", "WEB_CONCURRENCY=\"4\"", "--env-file", ".kamal/env/roles/app-workers.env" ],
+      config_with_roles.role(:workers).env_args("1.1.1.3").map(&:to_s)
+
+    assert_equal \
+      "\n",
+      config_with_roles.role(:workers).secrets_io("1.1.1.3").read
   end
 
   test "container name" do
@@ -85,7 +88,13 @@ class ConfigurationRoleTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
   end
 
   test "env args" do
-    assert_equal [ "--env", "REDIS_URL=\"redis://a/b\"", "--env", "WEB_CONCURRENCY=\"4\"" ], config_with_roles.role(:workers).env_args("1.1.1.3")
+    assert_equal \
+      [ "--env", "REDIS_URL=\"redis://a/b\"", "--env", "WEB_CONCURRENCY=\"4\"", "--env-file", ".kamal/env/roles/app-workers.env" ],
+      config_with_roles.role(:workers).env_args("1.1.1.3").map(&:to_s)
+
+    assert_equal \
+      "\n",
+      config_with_roles.role(:workers).secrets_io("1.1.1.3").read
   end
 
   test "env secret overwritten by role" do
@@ -109,12 +118,13 @@ class ConfigurationRoleTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
         ]
       }
 
-      assert_equal [
-        "--env", "REDIS_URL=\"redis://a/b\"",
-        "--env", "WEB_CONCURRENCY=\"4\"",
-        "--env", "REDIS_PASSWORD=\"secret456\"",
-        "--env", "DB_PASSWORD=\"secret&\\\"123\"" ],
+      assert_equal \
+        [ "--env", "REDIS_URL=\"redis://a/b\"", "--env", "WEB_CONCURRENCY=\"4\"", "--env-file", ".kamal/env/roles/app-workers.env" ],
         config_with_roles.role(:workers).env_args("1.1.1.3").map(&:to_s)
+
+      assert_equal \
+        "REDIS_PASSWORD=secret456\nDB_PASSWORD=secret&\"123\n",
+        config_with_roles.role(:workers).secrets_io("1.1.1.3").read
     end
   end
 
@@ -130,11 +140,13 @@ class ConfigurationRoleTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
         ]
       }
 
-      assert_equal [
-        "--env", "REDIS_URL=\"redis://a/b\"",
-        "--env", "WEB_CONCURRENCY=\"4\"",
-        "--env", "DB_PASSWORD=\"secret123\"" ],
+      assert_equal \
+        [ "--env", "REDIS_URL=\"redis://a/b\"", "--env", "WEB_CONCURRENCY=\"4\"", "--env-file", ".kamal/env/roles/app-workers.env" ],
         config_with_roles.role(:workers).env_args("1.1.1.3").map(&:to_s)
+
+      assert_equal \
+        "DB_PASSWORD=secret123\n",
+        config_with_roles.role(:workers).secrets_io("1.1.1.3").read
     end
   end
 
@@ -149,11 +161,13 @@ class ConfigurationRoleTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
         ]
       }
 
-      assert_equal [
-        "--env", "REDIS_URL=\"redis://a/b\"",
-        "--env", "WEB_CONCURRENCY=\"4\"",
-        "--env", "REDIS_PASSWORD=\"secret456\"" ],
+      assert_equal \
+        [ "--env", "REDIS_URL=\"redis://a/b\"", "--env", "WEB_CONCURRENCY=\"4\"", "--env-file", ".kamal/env/roles/app-workers.env" ],
         config_with_roles.role(:workers).env_args("1.1.1.3").map(&:to_s)
+
+      assert_equal \
+        "REDIS_PASSWORD=secret456\n",
+        config_with_roles.role(:workers).secrets_io("1.1.1.3").read
     end
   end
 
@@ -174,11 +188,13 @@ class ConfigurationRoleTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
         }
       }
 
-      config = config_with_roles
-      assert_equal [
-        "--env", "REDIS_URL=\"redis://c/d\"",
-        "--env", "REDIS_PASSWORD=\"secret456\"" ],
-        config.role(:workers).env_args("1.1.1.3").map(&:to_s)
+      assert_equal \
+        [ "--env", "REDIS_URL=\"redis://c/d\"", "--env-file", ".kamal/env/roles/app-workers.env" ],
+        config_with_roles.role(:workers).env_args("1.1.1.3").map(&:to_s)
+
+      assert_equal \
+        "REDIS_PASSWORD=secret456\n",
+        config_with_roles.role(:workers).secrets_io("1.1.1.3").read
     end
   end
 
diff --git a/test/env_file_test.rb b/test/env_file_test.rb
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..c6b9e66e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test/env_file_test.rb
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+require "test_helper"
+
+class EnvFileTest < ActiveSupport::TestCase
+  test "to_s" do
+    env = {
+      "foo" => "bar",
+      "baz" => "haz"
+    }
+
+    assert_equal "foo=bar\nbaz=haz\n", \
+      Kamal::EnvFile.new(env).to_s
+  end
+
+  test "to_str won't escape chinese characters" do
+    env = {
+      "foo" => '你好 means hello, "欢迎" means welcome, that\'s simple! 😃 {smile}'
+    }
+
+    assert_equal "foo=你好 means hello, \"欢迎\" means welcome, that's simple! 😃 {smile}\n",
+      Kamal::EnvFile.new(env).to_s
+  end
+
+  test "to_s won't escape japanese characters" do
+    env = {
+      "foo" => 'こんにちは means hello, "ようこそ" means welcome, that\'s simple! 😃 {smile}'
+    }
+
+    assert_equal "foo=こんにちは means hello, \"ようこそ\" means welcome, that's simple! 😃 {smile}\n", \
+      Kamal::EnvFile.new(env).to_s
+  end
+
+  test "to_s won't escape korean characters" do
+    env = {
+      "foo" => '안녕하세요 means hello, "어서 오십시오" means welcome, that\'s simple! 😃 {smile}'
+    }
+
+    assert_equal "foo=안녕하세요 means hello, \"어서 오십시오\" means welcome, that's simple! 😃 {smile}\n", \
+      Kamal::EnvFile.new(env).to_s
+  end
+
+  test "to_s empty" do
+    assert_equal "\n", Kamal::EnvFile.new({}).to_s
+  end
+
+  test "to_s escaped newline" do
+    env = {
+      "foo" => "hello\\nthere"
+    }
+
+    assert_equal "foo=hello\\\\nthere\n", \
+      Kamal::EnvFile.new(env).to_s
+  ensure
+    ENV.delete "PASSWORD"
+  end
+
+  test "to_s newline" do
+    env = {
+      "foo" => "hello\nthere"
+    }
+
+    assert_equal "foo=hello\\nthere\n", \
+      Kamal::EnvFile.new(env).to_s
+  ensure
+    ENV.delete "PASSWORD"
+  end
+
+  test "stringIO conversion" do
+    env = {
+      "foo" => "bar",
+      "baz" => "haz"
+    }
+
+    assert_equal "foo=bar\nbaz=haz\n", \
+      StringIO.new(Kamal::EnvFile.new(env)).read
+  end
+end
diff --git a/test/integration/main_test.rb b/test/integration/main_test.rb
index 5b12d857..b58aeeb9 100644
--- a/test/integration/main_test.rb
+++ b/test/integration/main_test.rb
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ class MainTest < IntegrationTest
     assert_equal "app-#{version}", config[:service_with_version]
     assert_equal [], config[:volume_args]
     assert_equal({ user: "root", port: 22, keepalive: true, keepalive_interval: 30, log_level: :fatal }, config[:ssh_options])
-    assert_equal({ "driver" => "docker", "arch" => "amd64", "args" => { "COMMIT_SHA" => version } }, config[:builder])
+    assert_equal({ "driver" => "docker", "arch" => "#{Kamal::Utils.docker_arch}", "args" => { "COMMIT_SHA" => version } }, config[:builder])
     assert_equal [ "--log-opt", "max-size=\"10m\"" ], config[:logging]
     assert_equal({ "cmd"=>"wget -qO- http://localhost > /dev/null || exit 1", "interval"=>"1s", "max_attempts"=>3, "port"=>3000, "path"=>"/up", "cord"=>"/tmp/kamal-cord", "log_lines"=>50 }, config[:healthcheck])
   end